Sexuality
Approaches to understanding
sexuality are categorized as either essentialist or social constructionist.
Essentialism, focusing on the individual expression of human desire and
pleasure, favors a biological explanation. Social constructionism, focusing on
the relationship between individual and society, explores how sexuality is
embedded in historical, political, and social practices. Foucault (1979) traces
the history of the heterosexuality/homosexuality dichotomy to processes that
began in the nineteenth century and the birth of sexology. Challenging
essentialist conceptualizations of sex and sexuality as transhistorical and
stable categories, Foucault claims that the discursive invention of sexuality
as a biological instinct fundamental to understanding an individual's health,
pathology and identity lead to biopower. While sex denoted the sexual act,
sexuality symbolized the true essence of the individual. Sexual behavior
represented the true nature and identity of an individual. While the
sexologists favored a biological explanation, Freud's psychoanalytic theory of
sexual development led to the psychological construction of different sexual
identities. The individual progresses from an initial polymorphous sexuality in
early childhood through to the development of a mature stable heterosexual
identity in adulthood; homosexuality is a temporary (adolescent) stage of
development. To sociologists, sexuality is derived from experiences constructed
within social, cultural, and historical contexts. Sexual identities and
behaviors develop herein; norms and cultural expectations guide individuals.
Sexual Foundations of society
The sex drive is one of the
building blocks of human social life. While no inborn drive compels humans to
act in any particular way, each drive consists of a set of recurrent tension
states which impels people to some kind of activity to relieve the tension.
Sexuality includes all the feelings and behavior linked to sex through either
biology or social learning. The human shares with the anthropoids the
biological fact of continuous sexuality meaning that the female may be sexually
active at any time. The human female passes through no biological cycles of
sexual acceptance and rejection. There are some species whose males and females
associate continuously while mating only seasonally. Continuous sexuality
therefore is not necessary for continuous association but it is a guarantee
that the sexes will associate continuously. This makes continuous sexuality a
part of the biological basis for human social life.
Thus human sex drive is notable
for continuous sexuality which ensures the continuous association of the sexes,
desire for continuity which makes for enduring sexual partnerships, the desire
for variety which conflicts with the desire for continuity and remarkable
pliability with sex interest channeled through whatever patterns a society has
established as normal.
Sex – Differences
The human sexes are visibly
different in some physical characteristics. Work-role ascription in simple
societies was highly affected by physical sex differences. Men considerably
exceed women in average upper body strength. Although women do a lot of
moderately heavy physical labor in many societies, tasks calling for great
strength or speed such as hunting, fighting, tree clearing or heavy lifting are
nearly always done by men. The almost continuous childbearing and nursing in most
societies has generally limited women’s work to that which could be combined
with baby care work which was reptetive, interruptible and calling for no great
physical strength. This had the effect of assigning most of the adventurous and
exciting work to men and most of the drudgery to women. Yet there are several
instances showing that functional practicality was not the only determinant of
the gender work roles. In modern societies physical strength and reproductive
function are less important factors in work-role ascription. Even the physical
differences are shrinking.
In many fields of athletic
competition, women are catching up with men. The gap between men’s and women’s
records in all events which both enter has narrowed by an average of 1/3.According
to Maccoby and Jacklin about the sex differences among Americans- the research
shows boy’s greater aggressiveness, boys’ greater mathematical and visual
–spatial differences and girls’ greater verbal ability. There are no
significant sex differences in sociability, self-esteem, higher cognitive
learnings, analytic ability, achievement motivation and responsiveness to
visual stimuli. It is not certain that these ability differences are
biological. They may be but not proved. All sex differences apart from
reproductive system are average differences. These are not very great with a
great deal of overlapping. It clearly shows that aside from physical strength
and reproduction most sex differences are social products, not biological
building blocks.Sex roles can be whatever a society makes them.
Changing sex roles
Women’s roles have shown great
change throughout history. Women’s status was fairly high in ancient Egypt in
sense of considerable independence, power and choice and low in early Greece
and Roman Empire. The traditional sex-role ascription assumed a series of sex
differences in abilities and limitations which are no longer believed by
educated people. In traditional societies like Indian society it was easy to
attribute one’s discriminatory practices to the will of God but it is now not
acceptable. It is widely believed that normal sex roles are normal for only a
specific time and place .Thus the intellectual foundation for the subordinate
roles of women have been negated. The importance attributed to the work one
does have always been closely related to one’s status and power. In ancient
societies priests seemed to have greater control over the people. In hunting
societies where men caught the food and women generally prepared it the man’s
success in hunting determined whether the group ate or starved.
In agricultural societies,
women’s contribution to food supply increased and women’s power also increased.
Industrialization both in developed and developing countries lowered the status
of women. It made men the primary breadwinners and women the helpers. But
during the later stages of industrialization and in the post industrial society
family size started shrinking and more women started working in factories.
According to a research done by Blood and Wolfe the wife’s power within the
family tends to vary according to how closely her pay check matches her
husband’s. It can be safely said that while women have been slow in gaining
power equal to their economic contribution, the economic base for male dominance
is reducing considerably in both developed and developing nations.
Masculinity and Feminity
Masculinity and femininity refer
to the differing feelings and behavior expected of males and females at a
particular time and place and is largely a product of sex-role socialization.
Such socialization has been accomplished in many ways, many of which are
unintended and unconscious. In many societies men are being rewarded for being
aggressive, competitive and career –oriented. Girls are required to be gentle and
homely. Men have been trained to direct and command, women have been trained to
obey and serve and to get their way through manipulation. Men are rated
according to their career advancement while women are evaluated by their
domestic skills. In many ways the sexes have been socialized to feel
differently about themselves and to act differently. There is ample evidence to
prove that sex-role stereotypes are very much alive today. In almost every work
activity men are judged to be more competent than women.
A number of studies show that
when women are successful it is likely to be attributed to either luck or great
effort while men’s success is more often attributed to ability. No legislation
can achieve genuine sex equality unless there are changes in the ways men and
women feel about themselves and each other. Changing sex-role stereotypes is
not easy. Our institutions are saturated with sexism deeply entrenched with
tradition. Most personnel policies have been based upon the assumption that
men’s career interests are primary and enduring while women’s career interests
are temporary and secondary to their other interests.
Homosexuality
The term homosexual is applied
both to persons who have a strong preference for sex partners of the same sex
and to those who regardless of sex preference engage in sex relations with
persons of the same sex.According to Ford a capacity to respond sexually to
both sexes is present among humans and many other species. Homosexuality
appears at least occasionally in all or nearly all human societies. It is
either absent, rare or secret in about one third of the societies studied by
Ford and Beach. In about two-thirds some form of homosexual behavior is
considered acceptable and normal for at least some categories of people or stages
of life. Homosexuals are very much like heterosexuals in every thing except
sexual preference. A number of studies have found no other personality traits
that distinguish homosexuals from heterosexuals. Apart from difficulties
arising from the social treatment of homosexuals, personality maladjustments
are no more common among homosexuals than among heterosexuals. The mental
illness theory sees homosexuals as victims of sex-role confusion. According to
psychiatric opinion the male homosexual is often a product of a dominating but
seductive mother and a cold remote father. But the most comprehensive research
study of homosexuals comparing large samples of homosexuals and heterosexuals
found no significant differences in family backgrounds, parental types or
relationships with parents. Several studies have found significant differences
between the hormone levels of homosexuals and heterosexuals.
The social –learning theory holds
that one learns homosexual behavior through the same reward-punishment system that
shapes most social learning. According to this theory if most childhood and
adolescent interaction with the opposite sex is pleasant and rewarding one
becomes a heterosexual; if these experiences are uncomfortable and anxiety
laden and if attempts at heterosexual intercourse are unsatisfying one may
become a homosexual. The increased social acceptance of homosexuals in recent
years has apparently not increased the number of homosexuals as expected if
homosexuality were a learned sex role. There is no convincing evidence that
having a homosexual parent, uncle or neighbor increases the likelihood of a
child’s becoming a homosexual. It is difficult to agree upon rational set of
social policies concerning homosexuality unless more research and studies are carried
out.
