Meta Theory

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A metatheory or meta-theory is a theory whose subject matter is some theory. All fields of research share some meta-theory, regardless whether this is explicit or correct. In a more restricted and specific sense, in mathematics and mathematical logic, metatheory means a mathematical theory about another mathematical theory.

A theory concerned with the investigation, analysis, or description of theory itself.

Meta-theory is a critical exploration of the theoretical frameworks or lenses that have provided direction to research and to researchers, as well as the theory that has arisen from research in a particular field of study (Neufeld, 1994).

Metatheory, a theory the subject matter of which is another theory. A finding proved in the former that deals with the latter is known as a metatheorem.

Sociological Perspectives

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The Three Main Sociological Perspectives

From Mooney, Knox, and Schacht, 2007. Understanding Social Problems, 5th edition

Theories in sociology provide us with different perspectives with which to view our social world.

A perspective is simply a way of looking at the world. A theory is a set of interrelated

propositions or principles designed to answer a question or explain a particular phenomenon; it

provides us with a perspective. Sociological theories help us to explain and predict the social

world in which we live.

 Sociology includes three major theoretical perspectives: the functionalist perspective, the

conflict perspective, and the symbolic interactionist perspective (sometimes called the

interactionist perspective, or simply the micro view). Each perspective offers a variety of

explanations about the social world and human behavior.

Functionalist Perspective

The functionalist perspective is based largely on the works of Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim,

Talcott Parsons, and Robert Merton. According to functionalism, society is a system of

interconnected parts that work together in harmony to maintain a state of balance and social

equilibrium for the whole. For example, each of the social institutions contributes important

functions for society: Family provides a context for reproducing, nurturing, and socializing

children; education offers a way to transmit a society’s skills, knowledge, and culture to its youth;

politics provides a means of governing members of society; economics provides for the

production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services; and religion provides moral

guidance and an outlet for worship of a higher power.

 The functionalist perspective emphasizes the interconnectedness of society by focusing

on how each part influences and is influenced by other parts. For example, the increase in singleparent and dual-earner families has contributed to the number of children who are failing in

school because parents have become less available to supervise their children’s homework. As a

result of changes in technology, colleges are offering more technical programs, and many adults

are returning to school to learn new skills that are required in the workplace. The increasing

number of women in the workforce has contributed to the formulation of policies against sexual

harassment and job discrimination.

 Functionalists use the terms functional and dysfunctional to describe the effects of social

elements on society. Elements of society are functional if they contribute to social stability and

dysfunctional if they disrupt social stability. Some aspects of society can be both functional and

dysfunctional. For example, crime is dysfunctional in that it is associated with physical violence,

loss of property, and fear. But according to Durkheim and other functionalists, crime is also

functional for society because it leads to heightened awareness of shared moral bonds and

increased social cohesion.

 Sociologists have identified two types of functions: manifest and latent (Merton 1968).

Manifest functions are consequences that are intended and commonly recognized. Latent

functions are consequences that are unintended and often hidden. For example, the manifest

function of education is to transmit knowledge and skills to society’s youth. But public

elementary schools also serve as babysitters for employed parents, and colleges offer a place for

young adults to meet potential mates. The baby-sitting and mate-selection functions are not the

intended or commonly recognized functions of education; hence they are latent functions.

Conflict Perspective

The functionalist perspective views society as composed of different parts working together. In

contrast, the conflict perspective views society as composed of different groups and interest

competing for power and resources. The conflict perspective explains various aspects of our

social world by looking at which groups have power and benefit from a particular social

arrangement. For example, feminist theory argues that we live in a patriarchal society—a

hierarchical system of organization controlled by men. Although there are many varieties of

feminist theory, most would hold that feminism “demands that existing economic, political, and

social structures be changed” (Weir and Faulkner 2004, p.xii).

 The origins of the conflict perspective can be traced to the classic works of Karl Marx.

Marx suggested that all societies go through stages of economic development. As societies

evolve from agricultural to industrial, concern over meeting survival needs is replaced by concern

over making a profit, the hallmark of a capitalist system. Industrialization leads to the

development of two classes of people: the bourgeoisie, or the owners of the means of production

(e.g., factories, farms, businesses); and the proletariat, or the workers who earn wages.

 The division of society into two broad classes of people—the “haves” and the “havenots”—is beneficial to the owners of the means of production. The workers, who may earn only

subsistence wages, are denied access to the many resources available to the wealthy owners.

According to Marx, the bourgeoisie use their power to control the institutions of society to their

advantage. For example, Marx suggested that religion serves as an “opiate of the masses” in that

it soothes the distress and suffering associated with the working-class lifestyle and focuses the

workers’ attention on spirituality, God, and the afterlife rather than on such worldly concerns as

living conditions. In essence, religion diverts the workers so that they concentrate on being

rewarded in heaven for living a moral life rather than on questioning their exploitation.

Symbolic Interaction Perspective

Both the functionalist and the conflict perspectives are concerned with how broad aspects of

society, such as institutions and large social groups, influence the social world. This level of

sociological analysis is called macro sociology: It looks at the big picture of society and suggests

how social problems are affected at the institutional level.

Micro sociology, another level of sociological analysis, is concerned with the social

psychological dynamics of individuals interacting in small groups. Symbolic interactionism

reflects the micro-sociological perspective, and was largely influenced by the work of early

sociologists and philosophers, such as George Simmel, Charles Cooley, George Herbert Mead,

and Erving Goffman. Symbolic interactionism emphasizes that human behavior is influenced by

definitions and meanings that are created and maintained through symbolic interaction with

others.

 Sociologist W.I. Thomas (1966) emphasized the importance of definitions and meanings

in social behavior and its consequences. He suggested that humans respond to their definition of

a situation rather than to the objective situation itself. Hence Thomas noted that situations that

we define as real become real in their consequences.

 Symbolic interactionism also suggests that our identity or sense of self is shaped by social

interaction. We develop our self-concept by observing how others interact with us a label us. By

observing how others view us, we see a reflection ourselves that Cooley calls the “looking glass

glass".

Four Asian Tigers

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                         https://www.docurex.com/en/four-4-asian-tigers-economy-growth/

Four Asian Tigers

The Four Asian Tigers: Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan

The Four Asian Tigers, Four Asian Dragons or Four Little Dragons, are the economies of Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan, which underwent rapid industrialization and maintained exceptionally high growth rates (in excess of 7 percent a year) between the early 1960s (mid-1950s for Hong Kong) and 1990s. By the early 21st century, all four had developed into high-income economies, specializing in areas of competitive advantage. Hong Kong and Singapore have become world-leading international financial centres, whereas South Korea and Taiwan are world leaders in manufacturing electronic components and devices. Their economic success stories have served as role models for many developing countries, especially the Tiger Cub Economies of southeast Asia.

A controversial World Bank report (The East Asian Miracle 1993) credited neoliberal policies with the responsibility for the boom, including maintenance of export-oriented policies, low taxes, and minimal welfare states; institutional analysis also states some state intervention was involved. However, others argued that industrial policy and state intervention had a much greater influence than the World Bank report suggested.

Emergence of the Four Tiger Governments

The world economy growth began to pick up during the early 1960’s after the World War II and the Korean War in the early 1950’s. Major leaps in air telecommunications and air travel coupled with probable world peace indicated that world countries were opening up their borders and thus the Four Tigers took advantage of this opening. The four countries had viable trade economies, established ports, high literacy levels and advanced infrastructure inherited from their colonial masters.

Asian tiger Singapore

Singapore is one of the smallest nations but has the highest GDP between the four asian tigers.

Owing to this development, the Asian Tigers took advantage of the situation since they were quite poor in the 1960s; these countries had plenty of inexpensive labor. Combined with educational restructuring, they were smart to leverage this amalgamation into a low-priced, yet industrious labor force. The Asian Dragons devoted to social equality in terms of land reforms, promotion of property rights and welfare of agricultural workers. In a little while, products and services from these nations were in high demand.

A booming stock exchange had already begun in 1891 in Hong Kong; thus it was reasonable when it drifted to financial services from the export market. Hotly followed by Singapore the two tiny nations are currently important global financial centers. During that interval South Korea and Taiwan were propelling the 1980’s -1990’s tech boom, nowadays Taipei and Seoul are leaders in cutting-edge technology and also home to the biggest names in electronics. These advancements happened so quickly hence the nickname ‘The Asian Miracle‘.

The economy growth of the Four Asian nations enabled them to sail through the local 1997 Asian Financial Crisis and also 2008 World Economic Crisis. At present these four nations significantly get enlisted in IMF’s global list of top 40 advanced economies.

Anthropology Vs. Sociology

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Anthropology Vs. Sociology

Sociology and Anthropology are social science disciplines that focus on studying the behavior of humans within their societies. Students interested in researching civilizations -- past and present -- as they relate to social hierarchies should consider studying anthropology and sociology. Many institutions combine both disciplines into one department due to the similarities between the two. The key difference between the two social sciences is that sociology concentrates on society while anthropology focuses on culture.

Definitions

Sociology is the study of social life, social change and the social causes and consequences of human behavior. Columbia University notes that sociological thinking involves the relationships among people -- or more specifically, the associations between people and the products of human interaction such as organizations, technologies, economies, cities, culture, media and religion.

The American Anthropological Association defines anthropology as the study of humans, past and present. Anthropological viewpoints are inspired by observing cross-cultural differences in social institutions, cultural beliefs and communication styles.

Focus Areas

Anthropologists are concerned with four concentration areas that include cultural anthropology, archaeology, linguistic anthropology and biological anthropology. Anthropologists often integrate the perspectives of several of these areas into their research, teaching and professional lives. Anthropologists are interested in researching issues such as the ritual of female genital mutilation in Sudan.

The American Sociological Associations describes the work of sociologists as interesting and complex because sociologists investigate the structure of groups, organizations and societies and how people interact within these contexts. Since all human behavior is social, the subject matter of sociology ranges from the intimate family to the hostile mob, from organized crime to religious traditions, from the divisions of race, gender and social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture.

Careers in Anthropology

The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that the job outlook for anthropologists should increase by 21 percent from 2010 to 2020. Due to the small number of positions expected to be available, the BLS warns that competition among applicants will be extremely stiff. Most anthropologist positions require a master's or doctoral degree. Anthropologists occupy positions in a variety of academic and nonacademic environments. Anthropologists serve as college faculty, program directors with government and nonprofit agencies or museum curators. Some anthropologists secure jobs working with police departments to assist with identifying mysterious or unknown remains. A study commissioned by The American Anthropological Association titled, "The Changing Face of Anthropology," indicated that 30 percent of the anthropology majors surveyed revealed they are working in positions that require education related to the discipline.

Careers in Sociology

Employment for sociologists is expected to grow by 18 percent from 2010 to 2020. The number of available jobs will far exceed applicants. Most sociologist positions require a master's degree or Ph.D. Most sociologists work as professors, policy analysts, urban planners, program supervisors, research directors or human resources managers. The American Sociological Association has continuously reported over the last couple of years that the job market for sociologists is one the rise. At one point over the course of the last couple of years, the ASA observed a 32-percent increase in positions available in its job bank.

Non-Probability Sampling

• Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a process that does not give all the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected. In any form of research, true random sampling is always difficult to achieve. Most researchers are bounded by time, money and workforce and because of these limitations, it is almost impossible to randomly sample the entire population and it is often necessary to employ another sampling technique, the non-probability sampling technique. In contrast with probability sampling, non-probability sample is not a product of a randomized selection processes. Subjects in a non-probability sample are usually selected on the basis of their accessibility or by the purposive personal judgment of the researcher. 
• The downside of the non-probablity sampling method is that an unknown proportion of the entire population was not sampled. This entails that the sample may or may not represent the entire population accurately. Therefore, the results of the research cannot be used in generalizations pertaining to the entire population.
• The difference between nonprobability and probability sampling is that nonprobability sampling does not involve random selection and probability sampling does. Does that mean that nonprobability samples aren't representative of the population? Not necessarily. But it does mean that nonprobability samples cannot depend upon the rationale of probability theory. At least with a probabilistic sample, we know the odds or probability that we have represented the population well. We are able to estimate confidence intervals for the statistic. With nonprobability samples, we may or may not represent the population well, and it will often be hard for us to know how well we've done so. In general, researchers prefer probabilistic or random sampling methods over nonprobabilistic ones, and consider them to be more accurate and rigorous. However, in applied social research there may be circumstances where it is not feasible, practical or theoretically sensible to do random sampling. Here, we consider a wide range of nonprobabilistic alternatives. We can divide nonprobability sampling methods into two broad types: accidental or purposive. Most sampling methods are purposive in nature because we usually approach the sampling problem with a specific plan in mind. The most important distinctions among these types of sampling methods are the ones between the different types of purposive sampling approaches.
• Sampling is the use of a subset of the population to represent the whole population or to inform about (social) processes that are meaningful beyond the particular cases, individuals or sites studied. Probability sampling, or random sampling, is a sampling technique in which the probability of getting any particular sample may be calculated. Nonprobability sampling does not meet this criterion and, as any methodological decision, should adjust to the research question that one envisages to answer. Nonprobability sampling techniques cannot be used to infer from the sample to the general population in statistical terms and thus answer "how many"-related research questions. Thus, one cannot say the same on the basis of a nonprobability sample than on the basis of a probability sample. The grounds for drawing generalizations (e.g., propose new theory, propose policy) from studies based on nonprobability samples are based on the notion of "theoretical saturation" and "analytical generalization" (Yin, 2014) instead of on statistical generalization. Researchers working with the notion of purposive sampling assert that while probability methods are suitable for large-scale studies concerned with representativeness, non-probability approaches are more suitable for in-depth qualitative research in which the focus is often to understand complex social phenomena (e.g., Marshall 1996; Small 2009). One of the advantages of nonprobability sampling is its lower cost compared to probability sampling. Moreover, the in-depth analysis of a small-N purposive sample or a case study enables the "discovery" and identification of patterns and causal mechanisms that do not draw time and context-free assumptions. From the point of view of the quantitative and statistical way of doing research, though, these assertions raise some questions —how can one understand a complex social phenomenon by drawing only the most convenient expressions of that phenomenon into consideration? What assumption about homogeneity in the world must one make to justify such assertions? Alas, the consideration that research can only be based in statistical inference focuses on the problems of bias linked to nonprobability sampling and acknowledges only one situation in which a non-probability sample can be appropriate —if one is interested only in the specific cases studied (for example, if one is interested in the Battle of Gettysburg), one does not need to draw a probability sample from similar cases (Lucas 2014a).

Types of Non-Probability Sampling

Convenience Sampling

Convenience sampling is probably the most common of all sampling techniques. With convenience sampling, the samples are selected because they are accessible to the researcher. Subjects are chosen simply because they are easy to recruit. This technique is considered easiest, cheapest and least time consuming.

Consecutive Sampling

Consecutive sampling is very similar to convenience sampling except that it seeks to include ALL accessible subjects as part of the sample. This non-probability sampling technique can be considered as the best of all non-probability samples because it includes all subjects that are available that makes the sample a better representation of the entire population.

Quota Sampling

Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the researcher ensures equal or proportionate representation of subjects depending on which trait is considered as basis of the quota.

For example, if basis of the quota is college year level and the researcher needs equal representation, with a sample size of 100, he must select 25 1st year students, another 25 2nd year students, 25 3rd year and 25 4th year students. The bases of the quota are usually age, gender, education, race, religion and socioeconomic status.

Judgmental Sampling

Judgmental sampling is more commonly known as purposive sampling. In this type of sampling, subjects are chosen to be part of the sample with a specific purpose in mind. With judgmental sampling, the researcher believes that some subjects are more fit for the research compared to other individuals. This is the reason why they are purposively chosen as subjects.

Snowball Sampling

Snowball sampling is usually done when there is a very small population size. In this type of sampling, the researcher asks the initial subject to identify another potential subject who also meets the criteria of the research. The downside of using a snowball sample is that it is hardly representative of the population.

When to Use Non-Probability Sampling

This type of sampling can be used when demonstrating that a particular trait exists in the population.

It can also be used when the researcher aims to do a qualitative, pilot or exploratory study.

It can be used when randomization is impossible like when the population is almost limitless.

It can be used when the research does not aim to generate results that will be used to create generalizations pertaining to the entire population.

It is also useful when the researcher has limited budget, time and workforce.

This technique can also be used in an initial study which will be carried out again using a randomized, probability sampling.

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                         en.wikipedia.org

What is Meta-theories?

• A metatheory or meta-theory is a theory whose subject matter is some theory. All fields of research share some meta-theory, regardless whether this is explicit or correct. In a more restricted and specific sense, in mathematics and mathematical logic, metatheory means a mathematical theory about another mathematical theory. Any physical theory is always provisional, in the sense that it is only a hypothesis; you can never prove it. No matter how many times the results of experiments agree with some theory, you can never be sure that the next time the result will not contradict the theory. On the other hand, you can disprove a theory by finding even a single observation that disagrees with the predictions of the theory.      ”
• Meta-theoretical investigations are generally part of philosophy of science. Also a metatheory is an object of concern to the area in which the individual theory is conceived.
• Metatheory, which deals with methods of evaluating theories, has traditionally been the province of philosophers of science, although psychologists implicitly use metatheories whenever they evaluate theories. The original figure below is a taxonomy of metatheories. Click on any approach to knowledge below the figure to learn more about it.
• A metatheory is a set of interlocking rules, principles, or a story (narrative), that both describes and prescribes what is acceptable and unacceptable as theory - the means of conceptual exploration - in a scientific discipline. For example, the prevailing metatheory might prescribe that change of form (transformational change) is, or is not, a legitimate way of understanding developmental change. If the prevailing metatheory accepted the legitimacy of transformational change, then theories of development would include some type of stage concept, because "stage" is the theoretical concept that is used to describe transformational change.
•      A methodology is a set of interlocking rules, principles, or a story, that describes and prescribes the nature of acceptable methods -- the means of observational exploration - in a scientific discipline. For example, the prevailing methodology might prescribe that the assessment of sequences is, or is not, critical to understanding developmental change. If deemed critical to methodology, sequential assessment methods would assume a central place as a tool of empirical inquiry.
•      Metatheory and methodology are closely interrelated and intertwined. Metatheory presents a vision of the nature of the world and the objects of that world (e.g., do you accept a picture of persons as "active agents" "constructing" their known world, or as "recoding devices" that "process" information). Methodology presents a vision of the tools we can use to explore that world.

Domestic Abuse In Public

Domestic Abuse In Public! (Social Experiment)

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Research methodology

Relationship among methodology, theory, paradigm, algorithm and method

The methodology is the general research strategy that outlines the way in which research is to be undertaken and, among other things, identifies the methods to be used in it. These methods, described in the methodology, define the means or modes of data collection or, sometimes, how a specific result is to be calculated. Methodology does not define specific methods, even though much attention is given to the nature and kinds of processes to be followed in a particular procedure or to attain an objective.

When proper to a study of methodology, such processes constitute a constructive generic framework, and may therefore be broken down into sub-processes, combined, or their sequence changed.

A paradigm is similar to a methodology in that it is also a constructive framework. In theoretical work, the development of paradigms satisfies most or all of the criteria for methodology. An algorithm, like a paradigm, is also a type of constructive framework, meaning that the construction is a logical, rather than a physical, array of connected elements.

Any description of a means of calculation of a specific result is always a description of a method and never a description of a methodology. It is thus important to avoid using methodology as a synonym for method or body of methods. Doing this shifts it away from its true epistemological meaning and reduces it to being the procedure itself, or the set of tools, or the instruments that should have been its outcome. A methodology is the design process for carrying out research or the development of a procedure and is not in itself an instrument, or method, or procedure for doing things.

Methodology and method are not interchangeable. In recent years however, there has been a tendency to use methodology as a "pretentious substitute for the word method".  Using methodology as a synonym for method or set of methods leads to confusion and misinterpretation and undermines the proper analysis that should go into designing research.

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How to Select a Research Topic

Selecting a Topic

The ability to develop a good research topic is an important skill. An instructor may assign you a specific topic, but most often instructors require you to select your own topic of interest. When deciding on a topic, there are a few things that you will need to do:

• brainstorm for ideas
• choose a topic that will enable you to read and understand the literature
• ensure that the topic is manageable and that material is available
• make a list of key words
• be flexible
• define your topic as a focused research question
• research and read more about your topic
• formulate a thesis statement

Be aware that selecting a good topic may not be easy. It must be narrow and focused enough to be interesting, yet broad enough to find adequate information. Before selecting your topic, make sure you know what your final project should look like. Each class or instructor will likely require a different format or style of research project.

Use the steps below to guide you through the process of selecting a research topic.

Step 1: Brainstorm for ideas

Choose a topic that interests you. Use the following questions to help generate topic ideas.

• Do you have a strong opinion on a current social or political controversy
• Did you read or see a news story recently that has piqued your interest or made you angry or anxious?
• Do you have a personal issue, problem or interest that you would like to know more about?
• Do you have a research paper due for a class this semester?
• Is there an aspect of a class that you are interested in learning more about?

Look at some of the following topically oriented Web sites and research sites for ideas.

Are you interested in current events, government, politics or the social sciences?

Try Washington File

• Are you interested in health or medicine?
• Look in Healthfinder.gov, Health & Wellness Resource Center or the National Library of Medicine
• Are you interested in the Humanities; art, literature, music?
• Browse links from the National Endowment for the Humanities
• For other subject areas try:
• the Scout Report or the New York Times/ College Web site

Write down any key words or concepts that may be of interest to you. Could these terms help be used to form a more focused research topic?

Be aware of overused ideas when deciding a topic. You may wish to avoid topics such as, abortion, gun control, teen pregnancy, or suicide unless you feel you have a unique approach to the topic. Ask the instructor for ideas if you feel you are stuck or need additional guidance.

Step 2: Read General Background Information

• Read a general encyclopedia article on the top two or three topics you are considering. Reading a broad summary enables you to get an overview of the topic and see how your idea relates to broader, narrower, and related issues. It also provides a great source for finding words commonly used to describe the topic. These keywords may be very useful to your later research. If you cant find an article on your topic, try using broader terms and ask for help from a librarian.
• For example, the Encyclopedia Britannica Online (or the printed version of this encyclopedia, in Thompson Library's Reference Collection on Reference Table 1) may not have an article on Social and Political Implications of Jackie Robinsons Breaking of the Color Barrier in Major League Baseball but there will be articles on baseball history and on Jackie Robinson.
•  
• Browse the Encyclopedia Americana for information on your topic ideas. Notice that both online encyclopedias provide links to magazine articles and Web sites. These are listed in the left or the right margins.
•  
• Use periodical indexes to scan current magazine, journal or newspaper articles on your topic. Ask a librarian if they can help you to browse articles on your topics of interest.
• Use Web search engines. Google and Bing are currently considered to be two of the best search engines to find web sites on the topic.

Step 3: Focus on Your Topic

Keep it manageable

A topic will be very difficult to research if it is too broad or narrow. One way to narrow a broad topic such as "the environment" is to limit your topic. Some common ways to limit a topic are:

• by geographical area Example: What environmental issues are most important in the Southwestern United States
• by culture Example: How does the environment fit into the Navajo world view?
• by time frame: Example: What are the most prominent environmental issues of the last 10 years? 
• by discipline Example: How does environmental awareness effect business practices today?
• by population group Example: What are the effects of air pollution on senior citizens?

Remember that a topic may be too difficult to research if it is too:

• locally confined - Topics this specific may only be covered in these (local) newspapers, if at all. Example: What sources of pollution affect the Genesee County water supply?
• recent - If a topic is quite recent, books or journal articles may not be available, but newspaper or magazine articles may. Also, Web sites related to the topic may or may not be available.
• broadly interdisciplinary - You could be overwhelmed with superficial information. Example: How can the environment contribute to the culture, politics and society of the Western states?
• popular - You will only find very popular articles about some topics such as sports figures and high-profile celebrities and musicians.

If you have any difficulties or questions with focusing your topic,discuss the topic with your instructor, or with a librarian

Step 4: Make a List of Useful Keywords

Keep track of the words that are used to describe your topic.

• Look for words that best describe your topic
• Look for them in when reading encyclopedia articles and background and general information
• Find broader and narrower terms, synonyms, key concepts for key words to widen your search capabilities
• Make note of these words and use them later when searching databases and catalogs

Step 5: Be Flexible

It is common to modify your topic during the research process. You can never be sure of what you may find. You may find too much and need to narrow your focus, or too little and need to broaden your focus. This is a normal part of the research process. When researching, you may not wish to change your topic, but you may decide that some other aspect of the topic is more interesting or manageable.

Keep in mind the assigned length of the research paper, project, bibliography or other research assignment. Be aware of the depth of coverage needed and the due date. These important factors may help you decide how much and when you will modify your topic. You instructor will probably provide specific requirements.

Step 6: Define Your Topic as a Focused Research Question

You will often begin with a word, develop a more focused interest in an aspect of something relating to that word, then begin to have questions about the topic.

For example:

• Ideas = Frank Lloyd Wright or modern architecture
• Research Question = How has Frank Lloyd Wright influenced modern architecture?
• Focused Research Question = What design principles used by Frank Lloyd Wright are common in contemporary homes?

Step 7: Research and Read More About Your Topic

Use the key words you have gathered to research in the catalog, article databases, and Internet search engines. Find more information to help you answer your research question.

You will need to do some research and reading before you select your final topic. Can you find enough information to answer your research question? Remember, selecting a topic is an important and complex part of the research process.

Step 8: Formulate a Thesis Statement

Write your topic as a thesis statement. This may be the answer to your research question and/or a way to clearly state the purpose of your research. Your thesis statement will usually be one or two sentences that states precisely what is to be answered, proven, or what you will inform your audience about your topic.

The development of a thesis assumes there is sufficient evidence to support the thesis statement.

For example, a thesis statement could be: Frank Lloyd Wright's design principles, including his use of ornamental detail and his sense of space and texture opened a new era of American architecture. His work has influenced contemporary residential design.

The title of your paper may not be exactly the same as your research question or your thesis statement, but the title should clearly convey the focus, purpose and meaning of your research.

For example, a title could be: Frank Lloyd Wright: Key Principles of Design For the Modern Home

Remember to follow any specific instructions from your instructor.

Practical Exercises to Extend Your Learning

Identify three narrower aspects of the following broad topics. In other words, what are three areas you could investigate that fit into these very broad topics?

Sports

Pollution

Politics

Identify a broader topic that would cover the following narrow topics. In other words, how could you expand these topics to find more information?

Menus in Michigan prisons

Urban planning in Flint

Imagine that you have been assigned the following topics. Think of 5 keywords you might use to look for information on each.

How does air quality affect our health?

What are the barriers to peace in the Middle East?

Should snowmobiling be allowed in wilderness areas?

How can welfare reform help poor children?

Article Credit : https://www.umflint.edu

Types of literature Reviews

Traditional or Narrative literature Review

• Critiques and summarizes a body of literature
• Draws conclusions about the topic
• Identifies gaps or inconsistencies in a body of knowledge
• Requires a sufficiently focused research question

Weaknesses:

• A large number of studies may make it difficult to draw conclusions
• The process is subject to bias that supports the researcher's own work.

Systematic Literature Review

• More rigorous and well-defined approach
• Comprehensive
• Published and unpublished studies relating to a particular subject area
• Details the time frame within which the literature was selected
• Details the methods used to evaluate and synthesize findings of the studies in question

Meta-analysis

• A form of systematic review (reductive)
• Takes findings from several studies on the same subject and analyzes them using standardized statistical procedures
• Integrates findings from a large body of quantitative findings to enhance under-standing (study=unit of analysis)
• Draws conclusions and detect patterns and relationships

Meta-synthesis

• Non-statistical technique
• Integrates, evaluates and interprets findings of multiple qualitative research studies
• Identifies common core elements and themes
• May use findings from phenomenological, grounded theory or ethnographic studies
• Involves analyzing and synthesizing key elements
• Goal:  transform individual findings into new conceptualizations and interpretations

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Sociohistorical linguistics

Sociohistorical linguistics, or historical sociolinguistics, is the study of the relationship between language and society in its historical dimension. A typical question in this field would, for instance, be: “How were the verb endings -s and -th (he loves vs. he loveth) distributed in Middle English society” or “When did people use French, when did they use English in 14th-century England?”

Sociohistorical linguistics is a relatively new field of linguistic research which represents a merger of two distinct sub-disciplines of linguistics; sociolinguistics and historical (or diachronic) linguistics. Researchers in this field use sociolinguistic methods to explain historical change. This approach is particularly useful when language-internal data alone is unable to account for some seemingly inexplicable developments. Instead of relying solely upon intra-linguistic evidence and data to explain language change, socio-historical linguists search for extra-linguistic causes of change. One of the seminal works in the field is Romaine (1982)'s Socio-Historical Linguistics. Other studies such as John McWhorter's work, The Missing Spanish Creoles, are more specific in this case examining the extra-linguistic reasons why there are no creoles with Spanish as a lexifier language (as opposed to English, French, Dutch, Portuguese, etc.). Not all linguists believe that sociolinguistic methods can be applied to historical situations. They argue that the sociolinguistic means at our disposal today (e.g. face-to-face interviews, recording of data, large and diverse sampling, etc.) are necessarily unavailable to sociolinguists working on historical developments. They therefore argue that it is exceedingly difficult to do socio-historical linguistics, and that the results will always be suspect due to lack of data and access to native speakers in real-world situations. For those who question the validity of socio-historical linguistics, it is a field of conjecture rather than solid conclusions. Those arguing for the validity of socio-historical linguistics reply that it is better to use what remaining textual evidence is available to begin to posit likely scenarios rather than leave some questions completely unanswered. Methods such as social network theory (cf. Lesley Milroy) that look at human interactions and their effects on the larger society are particularly well-suited to socio-historical research.

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Iron cage

Max Weber

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Iron cage

In sociology, the iron cage is a term coined by Max Weber for the increased rationalization inherent in social life, particularly in Western capitalist societies. The "iron cage" thus traps individuals in systems based purely on teleological efficiency, rational calculation and control. Weber also described the bureaucratization of social order as "the polar night of icy darkness".

The original German term is stahlhartes Gehäuse; this was translated into "iron cage", an expression made familiar to English language speakers by Talcott Parsons in his 1930 translation of Weber's The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. This translation has recently been questioned by certain sociologists and interpreted instead as the "shell as hard as steel".

Weber wrote:

“              In Baxter’s view the care for external goods should only lie on the shoulders of the 'saint like a light cloak, which can be thrown aside at any moment.' But fate decreed that the cloak should become an iron cage."               

Weber became concerned with social actions and the subjective meaning that humans attach to their actions and interaction within specific social contexts. He also believed in idealism, which is the belief that we only know things because of the meanings that we apply to them. This led to his interest in power and authority in terms of bureaucracy and rationalization.

Secularization and religion

Weber states, “the course of development involves… the bringing in of calculation into the traditional brotherhood, displacing the old religious relationship.”

Modern society was becoming characterized by its shift in the motivation of individual behaviors. Social actions were becoming based on efficiency instead of the old types of social actions, which were based on lineage or kinship. Behavior had become dominated by goal-oriented rationality and less by tradition and values. According to Weber, the shift from the old form of mobility in terms of kinship to a new form in terms of a strict set of rules was a direct result of growth in accumulation of capital, i.e. capitalism.

Effects of bureaucracies

Positive contributions

Bureaucracies were distinct from the former feudal system where people were promoted through favoritism and bribes because now there was a set of rules that are clearly defined; there was promotion through seniority and disciplinary control. Weber believes that this influenced modern society and how we operate today, especially politically.

Weber’s characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy:

• Hierarchy of command
• Impersonality
• Written rules of conduct
• Advancement based on achievement
• Specialized division of labor
• Efficiency

Weber believed that bureaucracies are goal-oriented organizations that are based on rational principles that are used to efficiently reach their goals. However, there are constraints within this bureaucratic system.

Negative effects of bureaucracies

Bureaucracies concentrate large amounts of power in a small number of people and are generally unregulated. Weber believed that those who control these organizations control the quality of our lives as well. Bureaucracies tend to generate oligarchy; which is where a few officials are the political and economic power. Because bureaucracy is a form of organization superior to all others, further bureaucratization and rationalization may be an inescapable fate.

Iron cage of bureaucracy

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Because of these aforementioned reasons, there will be an evolution of an iron cage, which will be a technically ordered, rigid, dehumanized society. The iron cage is the one set of rules and laws that we are all subjected and must adhere to. Bureaucracy puts us in an iron cage, which limits individual human freedom and potential instead of a “technological utopia” that should set us free. It is the way of the institution, where we do not have a choice anymore. Once capitalism came about, it was like a machine that you were being pulled into without an alternative option; currently, whether we agree or disagree, if you want to survive you need to have a job and you need to make money.

Laws of bureaucracies:

1. The official is subject to authority only with respect to their official obligation
2. Organized in a clearly defined hierarchy of offices
3. Each office has a clearly defined sphere of competence
4. The official has a free contractual relationship; free selection
5. Officials are selected through technical qualification
6. The official is paid by fixed salaries
7. The office is the primary occupation of the official
8. Promotion is based on an achievement which is granted by the judgment of superiors
9. The official works entirely separated from ownership of the means of administration
10. The official is subject to strict and systematic discipline within the office

Costs of bureaucracies

“Rational calculation . . . reduces every worker to a cog in this bureaucratic machine and, seeing himself in this light, he will merely ask how to transform himself… to a bigger cog… The passion for bureaucratization at this meeting drives us to despair.”

• Loss of individuality; labor is now being sold to someone who is in control, instead of individuals being artisans and craftsmen and benefiting from their own labor.
• Loss of autonomy; others are dictating what an individual’s services are worth.
• Individuals develop an obsession with moving on to bigger and better positions, but someone else will always be determining the value of our achievements.
• Lack of individual freedom; individuals can no longer engage in a society unless they belong to a large scale organization where they are given specific tasks in return for giving up their personal desires to conform to the bureaucracy’s goals  and are now following legal authority.
• Specialization; with specialization, society becomes more interdependent and has a less common purpose. There is a loss in the sense of community because the purpose of bureaucracies is to get the job done efficiently.

Bureaucratic hierarchies can control resources in pursuit of their own personal interests, which impacts society’s lives greatly and society has no control over this. It also affects society’s political order and governments because bureaucracies were built to regulate these organizations, but corruption remains an issue. The goal of the bureaucracy has a single-minded pursuit  that can ruin social order; what might be good for the organization might not be good for the society as a whole, which can later harm the bureaucracy’s future. Formal rationalization in bureaucracy has its problems as well. There are issues of control, depersonalization and increasing domination. Once the bureaucracy is created, the control is indestructible. There is only one set of rules and procedures, which reduces everyone to the same level. Depersonalization occurs because individual situations are not accounted for.  Most importantly, the bureaucracies will become more dominating over time unless they are stopped. In an advanced industrial-bureaucratic society, everything becomes part of the expanding machine, even people.

While bureaucracies are supposed to be based on rationalization, they act in the exact opposite manner. Political bureaucracies are established so that they protect our civil liberties, but they violate them with their imposing rules. Development and agricultural bureaucracies are set so that they help farmers, but put them out of business due to market competition that the bureaucracies contribute to. Service bureaucracies like health care are set to help the sick and elderly, but then they deny care based on specific criteria.

Debates regarding bureaucracies

Weber argues that bureaucracies have dominated modern society’s social structure; but we need these bureaucracies to help regulate our complex society. Bureaucracies may have desirable intentions to some, but they tend to undermine human freedom and democracy in the long run.

“Rationalization destroyed the authority of magical powers, but it also brought into being the machine-like regulation of bureaucracy, which ultimately challenges all systems of belief.”

It is important to note that according to Weber, society sets up these bureaucratic systems, and it is up to society to change them. Weber argues that it is very difficult to change or break these bureaucracies, but if they are indeed socially constructed, then society should be able to intervene and shift the system.

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James Samuel Coleman

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James Samuel Coleman (May 12, 1926 – March 25, 1995) was an American sociologist, theorist, and empirical researcher, based chiefly at the University of Chicago. He was elected president of the American Sociological Association. Coleman studied the sociology of education, public policy, and was one of the earliest users of the term "social capital". His Foundations of Social Theory influenced sociological theory. His "The Adolescent Society" (1961) and "Coleman Report" (Equality of Educational Opportunity, 1966) were two of the most heavily cited books in educational sociology. The landmark Coleman Report helped transform educational theory, reshape national education policies, and influenced public and scholarly opinion regarding the role of schooling in determining equality and productivity in the United States.

Early life

As the son of James and Maurine Coleman, he spent his early childhood in Bedford, Indiana, and then moved to Louisville, Kentucky. After graduating in 1944, he enrolled in a small school in Virginia, but left to enlist in the U.S. Navy during World War II. Coleman received his bachelor's degree in Chemical Engineering from Purdue University in 1949. In 1955, while studying to receive his Ph.D. from Columbia University, he was influenced by Paul Lazarsfeld.

Career

Coleman achieved renown with two studies on problem solving: An Introduction to Mathematical Sociology (1964) and Mathematics of Collective Action (1973). He taught at Stanford University and the University of Chicago. In 1959 he moved to Johns Hopkins University where he taught until 1973 before returning to Chicago. In 1959 he moved to Johns Hopkins University, where he taught as an associate, and eventually as a full-time professor in the social relations department. Upon his return he became the professor and senior study director at the National Opinion Research Center. In 1991 Coleman was elected President of the ASA. In 2001, Coleman was named among the top 100 American intellectuals, as measured by academic citations, in Richard Posner's book, Public Intellectuals: A Study of Decline.

Major contributions

The Coleman Report

Coleman is widely cited in the field of sociology of education. In the 1960s, he and several other scholars were commissioned by the US Department of Education, to write a report on educational equality in the US. It was one of the largest studies in history, with more than 650,000 students in the sample. The result was a massive report of over 700 pages. The 1966 report—titled "Equality of Educational Opportunity" (or otherwise known as the "Coleman Report")—fueled debate about "school effects" that is still relevant today. The report was commonly presented as evidence, or an argument, that school funding has little effect on student achievement. Upon a more thorough reading of the "Coleman Report", it was found that student background and socioeconomic status are more important in determining educational outcomes of a student. Additionally, differences in the quality of schools and teachers, has a small positive impact on student outcomes.

Coleman found that, by the 1960s, segregated black and white schools received nearly equal funding. This research also suggested that African American students benefited from schooling in non-segregated classrooms. This was a catalyst for the implementation of the desegregation of busing systems, that ferried African American students to integrated schools. In 1975, Coleman published new research, that further investigated the effects of school busing systems. These busing systems were intended to bring lower-class African American students to upper-class racially integrated schools. Upon advancements in school desegregation, white parents began to move their children out of integrated schools in large numbers. This mass exodus was termed "white flight". In 1966, Coleman wrote an article explaining that African American students only benefited from integrated schooling if the student majority was white.

Coleman's findings regarding "white flight" were not well received in some quarters, particularly among some members of the American Sociological Association. In response, efforts sprang up during the mid-1970s to revoke his ASA membership. Despite efforts, Coleman remained a member of the ASA, and eventually became their president. In another controversial finding of the "Coleman Report", it showed that 15 percent of African American students fell within the same range of academic accomplishment as the upper 50 percent of white students. The tests administered in these schools, did not appear to measure intelligence, but rather measured the student's ability to learn and perform in an American schooling environment. The report states: "These tests do not measure intelligence, nor attitudes, nor qualities of character. Furthermore they are not, nor are they intended, to be 'culture free.' Quite the reverse: they are culture bound. What they measure are the skills which are among the most important in our society for getting a good job and moving to a better one, and for full participation in an increasingly technical world."

Social capital

In Coleman's Foundations of Social Theory, there is a chapter that discusses his theory of social capital. Social capital is a set of resources that are found in family relations and in a community's social organization. Coleman believed that social capital is useful for the cognitive or social development of a child of young person. There are three main types of capital discussed; human capital, physical capital, and social capital. Human capital is an individual's skills, knowledge, and experience, which determine their value in society. Physical capital, being completely tangible and generally a private good, originates from the creation of tools to facilitate production. In addition to social capital, these three types of investments create the three main aspects of society's exchange of capital. According to Coleman, social capital and human capital are often complementary. By having certain skill-sets, experiences, and knowledge, an individual can gain social status, and therefore receive more social capital.

With the exchange of capital, comes Coleman's theories on obligations and expectations. He describes the situation of doing favors for someone as "credit slips". Should an individual need a favor, he is essentially giving someone else a credit slip, which signifies that they will be paid back for their goods and/or services. For an individual to believe that their favor will be reciprocated, Coleman believe there are two vital conditions. The first, is that there needs to be a level of trustworthiness in a social environment, to be able to believe the obligation will be met. Second, the individual needs to take into account the extent of the obligation.

While social capital has value in use, it is something that isn't easily exchanged. Coleman explores the idea of relative capital. He believed that capital's value was truly dependent on the social environment and the individual. With this being the case, the value of human capital, and physical capital, will change as well.

Coleman also explores the idea that social capital isn't as easy to invest in compared to human and physical capital. To invest in physical capital, is usually a good decision both financially and economically. To invest in human capital, is to make oneself more intelligent and experienced; surely a positive thing. When it comes to social capital, the incentive to invest isn't always personally appealing. According to Coleman, when an individual invests in social capital, they aren't necessarily investing in themselves. Investment in social capital leads to investment in the social structure, which the capital lies. This in turn will benefit those individuals and populations, which are a part of that particular social structure.

Legacy

Coleman was a pioneer in the construction of mathematical models in sociology with his book, Introduction to Mathematical Sociology (1964). His later treatise, Foundations of Social Theory (1990), made major contributions toward a more rigorous form of theorizing in sociology based on rational choice.[citation needed] Coleman wrote more than thirty books and published numerous articles. He also created an educational corporation that developed and marketed "mental games" aimed at improving the abilities of disadvantaged students. Coleman made it a practice to send his most controversial research findings "to his worst critics" prior to their publication, calling this "the best way to ensure validity."

At the time of his death, he was engaged in a long-term study titled the High School and Beyond, which examined the lives and careers of 75,000 people who had been high school juniors and seniors in 1980.

Coleman published lasting theories of education, which helped shape the field. With his focus on the allocation of rights, one can understand the conflict between rights. Towards the end of his life, Coleman questioned how to make the education systems more accountable, which caused educators to question their use and interpretation of standardized testing.

Coleman's publication of the "Coleman Report" included greatly influential findings that pioneered aspects of the desegregation of American public schools. His theories of integration also contributed to this. He also raised the issue of narrowing the educational gap between those who had money, and those who didn't. By creating a well-rounded student body, a student's educational experience can be greatly benefited.

Selected works

• Community Conflict (1955)
• Union Democracy: The Internal Politics of the International Typographical Union (1956, with Seymour Martin Lipset and Martin Trow)
• The Adolescent Society (1961)
• Introduction to Mathematical Sociology (1964)
• Models of Change and Response Uncertainty (1964)
• Equality of Educational Opportunity (1966)
• Macrosociology: Research and Theory (1970)
• Resources for Social Change: Race in the United States (1971)
• Youth: Transition to Adulthood (1973)
• High School Achievement (1982)
• The Asymmetrical Society (1982)
• Individual Interests and Collective Action (1986)
• Social Theory, Social Research, and a Theory of Action, article in American Journal of Sociology 91: 1309-1335 (1986).
• Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital, article in The American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 94, Supplement: Organizations and Institutions: Sociological and Economic Approaches to the Analysis of Social Structure, pp. S95-S120 (1988).
• Foundations of Social Theory (1990)
• Equality and Achievement in Education (1990)
• Redesigning American Education (1997, with Barbara Schneider, Stephen Plank, Kathryn S. Schiller, Roger Shouse, & Huayin Wang)

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