The Three Main Sociological Perspectives
From Mooney, Knox, and Schacht, 2007. Understanding Social
Problems, 5th edition
Theories in sociology provide us with different perspectives
with which to view our social world.
A perspective is simply a way of looking at the world. A
theory is a set of interrelated
propositions or principles designed to answer a question or
explain a particular phenomenon; it
provides us with a perspective. Sociological theories help
us to explain and predict the social
world in which we live.
Sociology includes
three major theoretical perspectives: the functionalist perspective, the
conflict perspective, and the symbolic interactionist
perspective (sometimes called the
interactionist perspective, or simply the micro view). Each
perspective offers a variety of
explanations about the social world and human behavior.
Functionalist Perspective
The functionalist perspective is based largely on the works
of Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim,
Talcott Parsons, and Robert Merton. According to
functionalism, society is a system of
interconnected parts that work together in harmony to
maintain a state of balance and social
equilibrium for the whole. For example, each of the social
institutions contributes important
functions for society: Family provides a context for
reproducing, nurturing, and socializing
children; education offers a way to transmit a society’s
skills, knowledge, and culture to its youth;
politics provides a means of governing members of society;
economics provides for the
production, distribution, and consumption of goods and
services; and religion provides moral
guidance and an outlet for worship of a higher power.
The functionalist
perspective emphasizes the interconnectedness of society by focusing
on how each part influences and is influenced by other
parts. For example, the increase in singleparent and dual-earner families has
contributed to the number of children who are failing in
school because parents have become less available to supervise
their children’s homework. As a
result of changes in technology, colleges are offering more
technical programs, and many adults
are returning to school to learn new skills that are
required in the workplace. The increasing
number of women in the workforce has contributed to the
formulation of policies against sexual
harassment and job discrimination.
Functionalists use
the terms functional and dysfunctional to describe the effects of social
elements on society. Elements of society are functional if they
contribute to social stability and
dysfunctional if they disrupt social stability. Some aspects
of society can be both functional and
dysfunctional. For example, crime is dysfunctional in that
it is associated with physical violence,
loss of property, and fear. But according to Durkheim and
other functionalists, crime is also
functional for society because it leads to heightened
awareness of shared moral bonds and
increased social cohesion.
Sociologists have
identified two types of functions: manifest and latent (Merton 1968).
Manifest functions are consequences that are intended and
commonly recognized. Latent
functions are consequences that are unintended and often
hidden. For example, the manifest
function of education is to transmit knowledge and skills to
society’s youth. But public
elementary schools also serve as babysitters for employed
parents, and colleges offer a place for
young adults to meet potential mates. The baby-sitting and
mate-selection functions are not the
intended or commonly recognized functions of education;
hence they are latent functions.
Conflict Perspective
The functionalist perspective views society as composed of
different parts working together. In
contrast, the conflict perspective views society as composed
of different groups and interest
competing for power and resources. The conflict perspective
explains various aspects of our
social world by looking at which groups have power and
benefit from a particular social
arrangement. For example, feminist theory argues that we
live in a patriarchal society—a
hierarchical system of organization controlled by men.
Although there are many varieties of
feminist theory, most would hold that feminism “demands that
existing economic, political, and
social structures be changed” (Weir and Faulkner 2004,
p.xii).
The origins of the
conflict perspective can be traced to the classic works of Karl Marx.
Marx suggested that all societies go through stages of
economic development. As societies
evolve from agricultural to industrial, concern over meeting
survival needs is replaced by concern
over making a profit, the hallmark of a capitalist system.
Industrialization leads to the
development of two classes of people: the bourgeoisie, or
the owners of the means of production
(e.g., factories, farms, businesses); and the proletariat,
or the workers who earn wages.
The division of
society into two broad classes of people—the “haves” and the “havenots”—is
beneficial to the owners of the means of production. The workers, who may earn
only
subsistence wages, are denied access to the many resources
available to the wealthy owners.
According to Marx, the bourgeoisie use their power to
control the institutions of society to their
advantage. For example, Marx suggested that religion serves
as an “opiate of the masses” in that
it soothes the distress and suffering associated with the
working-class lifestyle and focuses the
workers’ attention on spirituality, God, and the afterlife
rather than on such worldly concerns as
living conditions. In essence, religion diverts the workers
so that they concentrate on being
rewarded in heaven for living a moral life rather than on
questioning their exploitation.
Symbolic Interaction Perspective
Both the functionalist and the conflict perspectives are
concerned with how broad aspects of
society, such as institutions and large social groups,
influence the social world. This level of
sociological analysis is called macro sociology: It looks at
the big picture of society and suggests
how social problems are affected at the institutional level.
Micro sociology, another level of sociological analysis, is
concerned with the social
psychological dynamics of individuals interacting in small
groups. Symbolic interactionism
reflects the micro-sociological perspective, and was largely
influenced by the work of early
sociologists and philosophers, such as George Simmel,
Charles Cooley, George Herbert Mead,
and Erving Goffman. Symbolic interactionism emphasizes that
human behavior is influenced by
definitions and meanings that are created and maintained
through symbolic interaction with
others.
Sociologist W.I.
Thomas (1966) emphasized the importance of definitions and meanings
in social behavior and its consequences. He suggested that
humans respond to their definition of
a situation rather than to the objective situation itself.
Hence Thomas noted that situations that
we define as real become real in their consequences.
Symbolic
interactionism also suggests that our identity or sense of self is shaped by
social
interaction. We develop our self-concept by observing how
others interact with us a label us. By
observing how others view us, we see a reflection ourselves
that Cooley calls the “looking glass
glass".
