Neo Positivism

Neo Positivism arises out of the analogy between physical and social phenomena.Auguste comte made philosophical positivism the cornerstone of his sociological thought.But the school of neo-postivisim traces the origin to statistical tradition rather than Comte’s philosophical positivism.Neo positive takes phenomena form the physical world as models for social events and uses the laws of the former to explain the latter.It asserts that sociology should be a science and its methods should follow these of the natural expecially physical sciences.

Neopositivists consider sound scientific methodology to be the first principle of sociological analysis.For them sound scientific methodology involves mathematical and other formal models that incorporate formalization of variables.Computer techniques and language,experimental logics,laboratory experiments and computer simulation of human behaviour. Among early thinkers Pareto and Giddings stressed the scientific nature of sociology and recommended the use of methods commonly adopted in the natural sciences. Dodd,Ogburn,Zipf are considered to the leading exponents of neo-positivism.

Main features of Neo positivism

Positivistic pistemology: Neo positivism rejects a priori definitions of the essential nature of society,culture,social structure and institutions and insists on operational definition of concrete phenomena.The sequence of observable consequences that form a cluster of sense impressions is treated as the proper subject matter of sociology.

Operationalism: Neo positivist are not satisfied with the vague definitions of theoretical construets and concepts.Each term must be defined precisely and translated in measurable variables.For Neopositivists sociological theory is a systematic collection of concepts useful in the interpretation of statistical findings.

Quantitavism: Statistical analysis which incorporates enumeration and mesurement is basic to neo positivism.Due to the advances in computer technology a variety of methods and techniques are available.Hence the need is to put together the pieces of information pertaining to units of social structure into formal and mathematical system so that the relationship between different variables may be attained.

Empiricism: Whether it is survey research or experimental observation,the empirical work falls into a standard pattern.Place a problem that can be investigated by a fact finding inquiry. Formulation of a set of hypothesis that can be tested on the basis of individual responses to a set of questions.Collection of answers on an interview schedule,structured questionnaire .

Behaviourism: Because of the emphasis on operationalsim and quantitativsm ,neo postivists tend to study observable behaviour pattern.they concentrate on specific instances of interaction,sometimes counting the frequency and patterns of repetition.Substantive problems of social structure and the history of institutions and ideas are often ignored,concrete behaviour of individuals become the focus of sociological inquiry.Neo positivists develop non subjective and non voluntaristic theories of action and interaction.Based on mechanistic and field theoretical conceptions,extreme variants of neo-postivism may border behavioural determinism.

Mathematical theory construction: Neo positivists have commitment for formal theory construction.They claim that the strong symbolic representation of a theory in terms of the formal logic of mathematics necessarily increases the precision of theoretical propositions.The system of formal logic in mathematics enables substantive propositions to be couched in terms of exactly defined concepts and to state them with logical coherence.Formal theory construction appears in two different contexts first there is the formalization of well developed substantive theories.Second specific findings of particular empirical research are codified in mathematical terms and then organized into a formal theoretical system which established the mathematical relationship between variable in symbolic terms.Most of the empirical studies undertaken by sociologists fall in this category.However impact of mathematical sociology has been limited to few areas.

Criticism of Neo-Positivism

The critics of Neopositivism call the scientific sociology as meaningless jumble of numbers and formulas.Because of their dependence on frequency and measurement ,neo positivists tend to study social situations an problems which are recurrent.they also display a strong historical bias because their techniques permit them to study only contemporary social problems and not historical social events.

They tend to choose those areas that lend themselves most readily to mathematical formulations ,to the virtual neglect of more substantive areas of theoretical significance.Neopositivism is often critised as devoid of any substantive propositions and theories.The claims of Neo positivists are rejected by Mills on the ground that social science should not be treated as a storage building block endeavour.

Migration

There is no universally accepted definition of migration. It applies to a relatively settled population. It is a form of spatial mobility that shows the change from one geographical area or residential unit to another. The phenomenon of migration is so complex that the theoretical and empirical understandings are unable to comprehend it. Since the phenomenon is time and culture specific there is no universally valid theoretical formulation.

Migration includes both additive as well as separative aspects. It involves change due to separation from the place of origin and addition to the place of destination. These aspects make the concept of migration less precise when compared with other demographic processes.

The movement of population within and across the region is an important aspect of change. The large-scale and long distance movements are basic features of modern development. They are basic because they cause socio-economic changes that promote progress. These changes affect the society and the movement of population itself.

There are different theoretical views or perspectives that enrich our understanding of the issues related with the process of migration. There are two broad perspectives

• Economic Perspectives
• Sociological Perspectives
• Family and Migration
• Poverty and Migration
• Marriage and Migration
• Caste and Migration
• Education and Migration
• Urban Growth and Migration
• Social Consequences of Migration
• Social Effects of remittances from migration
• Social Impact of Migration

Rules of Marriage

No society gives absolute freedom to its members to select their partners. Endogamy and exogamy are the two main rules that condition marital choice.

Endogamy:

It is a rule of marriage in which the life-partners are to be selected within the group. It is marriage within the group and the group may be caste, class, tribe, race, village, religious group etc.We have caste endogamy, class endogamy, sub caste endogamy, race endogamy and tribal endogamy etc.In caste endogamy marriage has to take place within the caste. Brahmin has to marry a Brahmin. In sub caste endogamy it is limited to the sub caste groups.

Exogamy:

It is a rule of marriage in which an individual has to marry outside his own group. It prohibits marrying within the group. The so-called blood relatives shall neither have marital connections nor sexual contacts among themselves.

Forms of exogamy:

Gotra Exogamy: The Hindu practice of one marrying outside one's own gotra.

Pravara Exogamy: Those who belong to the same pravara cannot marry among themselves.

Village Exogamy: Many Indian tribes like Naga,Garo,Munda etc have the practice of marrying outside their village.

Pinda Exogamy: Those who belong to the same panda or sapinda( common parentage) cannot marry within themselves.

Isogamy: It is the marriage between two equals (status)

Anisogamy: It is an asymmetric marriage alliance between two individuals belonging to different social statuses. It is of two forms - Hypergamy and Hypogamy.

Hypergamy: It is the marriage of a woman with a man of higher Varna or superior caste or family.

Hypogamy: It is the marriage of high caste man with a low caste woman.

Orthogamy: It is the marriage between selected groups.

Cerogamy: It is two or more men get married to two or more women.

Anuloma marriage: It is a marriage under which a man can marry from his own caste or from those below, but a woman can marry only in her caste or above.

Pratiloma marriage: It is a marriage of a woman to a man from a lower caste which is not permitted.

Type of Marriages

Polygyny:

It is a form of marriage in which one man marries more than one woman at a given time. It is of two types --- Sororal polygyny and non sororal polygyny

Sororal polygyny:

It is a type of marriage in which the wives are invariably the sisters. It is often called sororate.

Non-sororal polygyny:

It is a type of marriage in which the wives are not related as sisters.

Polyandry:

It is the marriage of one woman with more than one man. It is less common than polygyny. It is of two types---- Fraternal Polyandry and non fraternal polyandry.

Fraternal polyandry:

When several brothers share the same wife the practice can be called alelphic or fraternal polyandry. This practice of being mate, actual or potential to one's husband's brothers is called levirate. It is prevalent among Todas.

Non - fraternal polyandry:

In this type the husband need not have any close relationship prior to the marriage. The wife goes to spend some time with each husband. So long as a woman lives with one of her husbands; the others have no claim over her.

Monogamy:

It is a form of marriage in which one man marries one woman .It is the most common and acceptable form of marriage.

Serial monogamy:

In many societies individuals are permitted to marry again often on the death of the first spouse or after divorce but they cannot have more than one spouse at one and the same time.

Straight monogamy:

In this remarriage is not allowed.

Group Marriage:

It means the marriage of two or more women with two or more men. Here the husbands are common husbands and wives are common wives. Children are regarded as the children of the entire group as a whole.

Marriage

Marriage is an institution that admits men and women to family life. Edward Westermarck defined marriage as the more or less durable connection between male and female lasting beyond the mere act of propagation till after the birth of offspring. Lowie defined it as a relatively permanent bond between permissible mates. Malinowski defined marriage as a contract for the production and maintenance of children. According to Lundberg Marriage consists of the rules and regulations that define the rights, duties and privileges of husband and wife with respect to each other. According to Horton and Hunt marriage is the approved social pattern whereby two or more persons establish a family. According to Anderson and Parker marriage are the sanctioning by a society of a durable bond between one or more males and one or more females established to permit sexual intercourse for the implied purpose of parenthood. According to John Levy and Ruth Monroe people get married because of the feeling that being in a family is the only proper indeed the only possible way to live. People do not marry because it is their social duty to perpetuate the institution of family or because the scriptures recommend matrimony but because they lived in a family as children and cannot get over the feeling that being in a family is the only proper way to live in society.

Empowerment Approach

-          by Sara Hlupekile Longwe

Sara Hlupekile Longwe is a consultant on gender and development based in Lusaka, Zambia. She was the chairperson of FEMNET between 1997 and 2003. She is the author of the Longwe Framework for Gender Analysis. Longwe describes herself as a radical feminist activist.

Sara Longwe. "Women’s Empowerment Framework."

The Women’s Empowerment Framework was developed by Sara Hlupekile Longwe as a way to conceptualize the process of empowerment through a sequence of measurable actions. The tool highlights the ascending levels of gender equality, although the levels are not linear in nature, but rather are conceptualized as reinforcing in nature. The path can be used as a frame of reference for progressive steps towards increasing equality, starting from meeting basic welfare needs to equality in the control over the means of production.

Women's Empowerment Framework

Longwe developed the Women's Empowerment Framework, or Longwe Framework, published in 1990. This Gender analysis framework helps planners understand the practical meaning of women's empowerment and equality, and then to evaluate whether a development initiative supports this empowerment. The basic premise is that women's development can be viewed in terms of five levels of equality: welfare, access, "conscientization", participation and control. Empowerment is essential at each of these levels. Welfare addresses basic needs, and access addresses ability to use resources such as credit, land and education. "Conscientization" is a key element of the framework: recognition that discrimination creates gender-related problems and women may themselves contribute to this discrimination. With participation, women are equal to men in making decisions, and with control the balance of powers between the genders is equal.

The five “levels of equality” in the Women’s Empowerment Framework include:

·         Welfare, meaning improvement in socioeconomic status, such as income, better nutrition, etc. This level produces nothing to empower women.

·         Access, meaning increased access to resources. This is the first step in empowerment as women increase their access relative to men.

·         Conscientisation, involving the recognition of structural forces that disadvantage and discriminate against women coupled with the collective aim to address these discriminations.

·         Mobilization, implementing actions related to the conscientisation of women.

·         Control, involving the level of access reached and control of resources that have shifted as a result of collective claim making and action. 

The model is explicitly political, linking women’s inequality and poverty to structural oppression. As such, in order to secure women’s equality and empowerment, both materially and financially, women must be empowered. The tool examines a program, such as a health or education intervention, to assess how it influences the five levels of empowerment, i.e., negatively, positively, or neutrally. It postulates an ascending level of equality impacts that can be tracked and assessed over time to see if progression or regression is taking place.

Strengths of the Women’s Empowerment Framework: 

The Women’s Empowerment Framework may assist organizations in developing more explicit programmatic strategies that aim to fundamentally shift the bases of gender inequality.

Gendered assumptions of equality are made explicit. This provides an excellent opportunity for a feminist context analysis, highlighting the political dimensions of gender inequality.

The three levels of a program effect, e.g., positive, neutral, or negative impact, can be easily compared across programs. This also helps clarify areas of program strength and weakness, which can be used for program learning purposes.

It is unique in explicitly allowing negative impacts to be located and analyzed.

Weaknesses (or not designed for):

The Women’s Empowerment Framework is not designed to explain how or why a program works, exploring the contributing or causal factors that led to the progression from one level of impact to the next. 

Focus is only placed on three levels of equality, e.g., positive, neutral, or negative impact, which limits important qualitative assessments of “success” that provide valuable information critical for program improvement.

The assumption that there is a hierarchy of gender equality levels suggests a somewhat more linear change trajectory than is often found in practice.