Meta Theory

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A metatheory or meta-theory is a theory whose subject matter is some theory. All fields of research share some meta-theory, regardless whether this is explicit or correct. In a more restricted and specific sense, in mathematics and mathematical logic, metatheory means a mathematical theory about another mathematical theory.

A theory concerned with the investigation, analysis, or description of theory itself.

Meta-theory is a critical exploration of the theoretical frameworks or lenses that have provided direction to research and to researchers, as well as the theory that has arisen from research in a particular field of study (Neufeld, 1994).

Metatheory, a theory the subject matter of which is another theory. A finding proved in the former that deals with the latter is known as a metatheorem.

Sociological Perspectives

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The Three Main Sociological Perspectives

From Mooney, Knox, and Schacht, 2007. Understanding Social Problems, 5th edition

Theories in sociology provide us with different perspectives with which to view our social world.

A perspective is simply a way of looking at the world. A theory is a set of interrelated

propositions or principles designed to answer a question or explain a particular phenomenon; it

provides us with a perspective. Sociological theories help us to explain and predict the social

world in which we live.

 Sociology includes three major theoretical perspectives: the functionalist perspective, the

conflict perspective, and the symbolic interactionist perspective (sometimes called the

interactionist perspective, or simply the micro view). Each perspective offers a variety of

explanations about the social world and human behavior.

Functionalist Perspective

The functionalist perspective is based largely on the works of Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim,

Talcott Parsons, and Robert Merton. According to functionalism, society is a system of

interconnected parts that work together in harmony to maintain a state of balance and social

equilibrium for the whole. For example, each of the social institutions contributes important

functions for society: Family provides a context for reproducing, nurturing, and socializing

children; education offers a way to transmit a society’s skills, knowledge, and culture to its youth;

politics provides a means of governing members of society; economics provides for the

production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services; and religion provides moral

guidance and an outlet for worship of a higher power.

 The functionalist perspective emphasizes the interconnectedness of society by focusing

on how each part influences and is influenced by other parts. For example, the increase in singleparent and dual-earner families has contributed to the number of children who are failing in

school because parents have become less available to supervise their children’s homework. As a

result of changes in technology, colleges are offering more technical programs, and many adults

are returning to school to learn new skills that are required in the workplace. The increasing

number of women in the workforce has contributed to the formulation of policies against sexual

harassment and job discrimination.

 Functionalists use the terms functional and dysfunctional to describe the effects of social

elements on society. Elements of society are functional if they contribute to social stability and

dysfunctional if they disrupt social stability. Some aspects of society can be both functional and

dysfunctional. For example, crime is dysfunctional in that it is associated with physical violence,

loss of property, and fear. But according to Durkheim and other functionalists, crime is also

functional for society because it leads to heightened awareness of shared moral bonds and

increased social cohesion.

 Sociologists have identified two types of functions: manifest and latent (Merton 1968).

Manifest functions are consequences that are intended and commonly recognized. Latent

functions are consequences that are unintended and often hidden. For example, the manifest

function of education is to transmit knowledge and skills to society’s youth. But public

elementary schools also serve as babysitters for employed parents, and colleges offer a place for

young adults to meet potential mates. The baby-sitting and mate-selection functions are not the

intended or commonly recognized functions of education; hence they are latent functions.

Conflict Perspective

The functionalist perspective views society as composed of different parts working together. In

contrast, the conflict perspective views society as composed of different groups and interest

competing for power and resources. The conflict perspective explains various aspects of our

social world by looking at which groups have power and benefit from a particular social

arrangement. For example, feminist theory argues that we live in a patriarchal society—a

hierarchical system of organization controlled by men. Although there are many varieties of

feminist theory, most would hold that feminism “demands that existing economic, political, and

social structures be changed” (Weir and Faulkner 2004, p.xii).

 The origins of the conflict perspective can be traced to the classic works of Karl Marx.

Marx suggested that all societies go through stages of economic development. As societies

evolve from agricultural to industrial, concern over meeting survival needs is replaced by concern

over making a profit, the hallmark of a capitalist system. Industrialization leads to the

development of two classes of people: the bourgeoisie, or the owners of the means of production

(e.g., factories, farms, businesses); and the proletariat, or the workers who earn wages.

 The division of society into two broad classes of people—the “haves” and the “havenots”—is beneficial to the owners of the means of production. The workers, who may earn only

subsistence wages, are denied access to the many resources available to the wealthy owners.

According to Marx, the bourgeoisie use their power to control the institutions of society to their

advantage. For example, Marx suggested that religion serves as an “opiate of the masses” in that

it soothes the distress and suffering associated with the working-class lifestyle and focuses the

workers’ attention on spirituality, God, and the afterlife rather than on such worldly concerns as

living conditions. In essence, religion diverts the workers so that they concentrate on being

rewarded in heaven for living a moral life rather than on questioning their exploitation.

Symbolic Interaction Perspective

Both the functionalist and the conflict perspectives are concerned with how broad aspects of

society, such as institutions and large social groups, influence the social world. This level of

sociological analysis is called macro sociology: It looks at the big picture of society and suggests

how social problems are affected at the institutional level.

Micro sociology, another level of sociological analysis, is concerned with the social

psychological dynamics of individuals interacting in small groups. Symbolic interactionism

reflects the micro-sociological perspective, and was largely influenced by the work of early

sociologists and philosophers, such as George Simmel, Charles Cooley, George Herbert Mead,

and Erving Goffman. Symbolic interactionism emphasizes that human behavior is influenced by

definitions and meanings that are created and maintained through symbolic interaction with

others.

 Sociologist W.I. Thomas (1966) emphasized the importance of definitions and meanings

in social behavior and its consequences. He suggested that humans respond to their definition of

a situation rather than to the objective situation itself. Hence Thomas noted that situations that

we define as real become real in their consequences.

 Symbolic interactionism also suggests that our identity or sense of self is shaped by social

interaction. We develop our self-concept by observing how others interact with us a label us. By

observing how others view us, we see a reflection ourselves that Cooley calls the “looking glass

glass".

Four Asian Tigers

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Four Asian Tigers

The Four Asian Tigers: Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan

The Four Asian Tigers, Four Asian Dragons or Four Little Dragons, are the economies of Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan, which underwent rapid industrialization and maintained exceptionally high growth rates (in excess of 7 percent a year) between the early 1960s (mid-1950s for Hong Kong) and 1990s. By the early 21st century, all four had developed into high-income economies, specializing in areas of competitive advantage. Hong Kong and Singapore have become world-leading international financial centres, whereas South Korea and Taiwan are world leaders in manufacturing electronic components and devices. Their economic success stories have served as role models for many developing countries, especially the Tiger Cub Economies of southeast Asia.

A controversial World Bank report (The East Asian Miracle 1993) credited neoliberal policies with the responsibility for the boom, including maintenance of export-oriented policies, low taxes, and minimal welfare states; institutional analysis also states some state intervention was involved. However, others argued that industrial policy and state intervention had a much greater influence than the World Bank report suggested.

Emergence of the Four Tiger Governments

The world economy growth began to pick up during the early 1960’s after the World War II and the Korean War in the early 1950’s. Major leaps in air telecommunications and air travel coupled with probable world peace indicated that world countries were opening up their borders and thus the Four Tigers took advantage of this opening. The four countries had viable trade economies, established ports, high literacy levels and advanced infrastructure inherited from their colonial masters.

Asian tiger Singapore

Singapore is one of the smallest nations but has the highest GDP between the four asian tigers.

Owing to this development, the Asian Tigers took advantage of the situation since they were quite poor in the 1960s; these countries had plenty of inexpensive labor. Combined with educational restructuring, they were smart to leverage this amalgamation into a low-priced, yet industrious labor force. The Asian Dragons devoted to social equality in terms of land reforms, promotion of property rights and welfare of agricultural workers. In a little while, products and services from these nations were in high demand.

A booming stock exchange had already begun in 1891 in Hong Kong; thus it was reasonable when it drifted to financial services from the export market. Hotly followed by Singapore the two tiny nations are currently important global financial centers. During that interval South Korea and Taiwan were propelling the 1980’s -1990’s tech boom, nowadays Taipei and Seoul are leaders in cutting-edge technology and also home to the biggest names in electronics. These advancements happened so quickly hence the nickname ‘The Asian Miracle‘.

The economy growth of the Four Asian nations enabled them to sail through the local 1997 Asian Financial Crisis and also 2008 World Economic Crisis. At present these four nations significantly get enlisted in IMF’s global list of top 40 advanced economies.

Anthropology Vs. Sociology

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Anthropology Vs. Sociology

Sociology and Anthropology are social science disciplines that focus on studying the behavior of humans within their societies. Students interested in researching civilizations -- past and present -- as they relate to social hierarchies should consider studying anthropology and sociology. Many institutions combine both disciplines into one department due to the similarities between the two. The key difference between the two social sciences is that sociology concentrates on society while anthropology focuses on culture.

Definitions

Sociology is the study of social life, social change and the social causes and consequences of human behavior. Columbia University notes that sociological thinking involves the relationships among people -- or more specifically, the associations between people and the products of human interaction such as organizations, technologies, economies, cities, culture, media and religion.

The American Anthropological Association defines anthropology as the study of humans, past and present. Anthropological viewpoints are inspired by observing cross-cultural differences in social institutions, cultural beliefs and communication styles.

Focus Areas

Anthropologists are concerned with four concentration areas that include cultural anthropology, archaeology, linguistic anthropology and biological anthropology. Anthropologists often integrate the perspectives of several of these areas into their research, teaching and professional lives. Anthropologists are interested in researching issues such as the ritual of female genital mutilation in Sudan.

The American Sociological Associations describes the work of sociologists as interesting and complex because sociologists investigate the structure of groups, organizations and societies and how people interact within these contexts. Since all human behavior is social, the subject matter of sociology ranges from the intimate family to the hostile mob, from organized crime to religious traditions, from the divisions of race, gender and social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture.

Careers in Anthropology

The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that the job outlook for anthropologists should increase by 21 percent from 2010 to 2020. Due to the small number of positions expected to be available, the BLS warns that competition among applicants will be extremely stiff. Most anthropologist positions require a master's or doctoral degree. Anthropologists occupy positions in a variety of academic and nonacademic environments. Anthropologists serve as college faculty, program directors with government and nonprofit agencies or museum curators. Some anthropologists secure jobs working with police departments to assist with identifying mysterious or unknown remains. A study commissioned by The American Anthropological Association titled, "The Changing Face of Anthropology," indicated that 30 percent of the anthropology majors surveyed revealed they are working in positions that require education related to the discipline.

Careers in Sociology

Employment for sociologists is expected to grow by 18 percent from 2010 to 2020. The number of available jobs will far exceed applicants. Most sociologist positions require a master's degree or Ph.D. Most sociologists work as professors, policy analysts, urban planners, program supervisors, research directors or human resources managers. The American Sociological Association has continuously reported over the last couple of years that the job market for sociologists is one the rise. At one point over the course of the last couple of years, the ASA observed a 32-percent increase in positions available in its job bank.

Non-Probability Sampling

• Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a process that does not give all the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected. In any form of research, true random sampling is always difficult to achieve. Most researchers are bounded by time, money and workforce and because of these limitations, it is almost impossible to randomly sample the entire population and it is often necessary to employ another sampling technique, the non-probability sampling technique. In contrast with probability sampling, non-probability sample is not a product of a randomized selection processes. Subjects in a non-probability sample are usually selected on the basis of their accessibility or by the purposive personal judgment of the researcher. 
• The downside of the non-probablity sampling method is that an unknown proportion of the entire population was not sampled. This entails that the sample may or may not represent the entire population accurately. Therefore, the results of the research cannot be used in generalizations pertaining to the entire population.
• The difference between nonprobability and probability sampling is that nonprobability sampling does not involve random selection and probability sampling does. Does that mean that nonprobability samples aren't representative of the population? Not necessarily. But it does mean that nonprobability samples cannot depend upon the rationale of probability theory. At least with a probabilistic sample, we know the odds or probability that we have represented the population well. We are able to estimate confidence intervals for the statistic. With nonprobability samples, we may or may not represent the population well, and it will often be hard for us to know how well we've done so. In general, researchers prefer probabilistic or random sampling methods over nonprobabilistic ones, and consider them to be more accurate and rigorous. However, in applied social research there may be circumstances where it is not feasible, practical or theoretically sensible to do random sampling. Here, we consider a wide range of nonprobabilistic alternatives. We can divide nonprobability sampling methods into two broad types: accidental or purposive. Most sampling methods are purposive in nature because we usually approach the sampling problem with a specific plan in mind. The most important distinctions among these types of sampling methods are the ones between the different types of purposive sampling approaches.
• Sampling is the use of a subset of the population to represent the whole population or to inform about (social) processes that are meaningful beyond the particular cases, individuals or sites studied. Probability sampling, or random sampling, is a sampling technique in which the probability of getting any particular sample may be calculated. Nonprobability sampling does not meet this criterion and, as any methodological decision, should adjust to the research question that one envisages to answer. Nonprobability sampling techniques cannot be used to infer from the sample to the general population in statistical terms and thus answer "how many"-related research questions. Thus, one cannot say the same on the basis of a nonprobability sample than on the basis of a probability sample. The grounds for drawing generalizations (e.g., propose new theory, propose policy) from studies based on nonprobability samples are based on the notion of "theoretical saturation" and "analytical generalization" (Yin, 2014) instead of on statistical generalization. Researchers working with the notion of purposive sampling assert that while probability methods are suitable for large-scale studies concerned with representativeness, non-probability approaches are more suitable for in-depth qualitative research in which the focus is often to understand complex social phenomena (e.g., Marshall 1996; Small 2009). One of the advantages of nonprobability sampling is its lower cost compared to probability sampling. Moreover, the in-depth analysis of a small-N purposive sample or a case study enables the "discovery" and identification of patterns and causal mechanisms that do not draw time and context-free assumptions. From the point of view of the quantitative and statistical way of doing research, though, these assertions raise some questions —how can one understand a complex social phenomenon by drawing only the most convenient expressions of that phenomenon into consideration? What assumption about homogeneity in the world must one make to justify such assertions? Alas, the consideration that research can only be based in statistical inference focuses on the problems of bias linked to nonprobability sampling and acknowledges only one situation in which a non-probability sample can be appropriate —if one is interested only in the specific cases studied (for example, if one is interested in the Battle of Gettysburg), one does not need to draw a probability sample from similar cases (Lucas 2014a).

Types of Non-Probability Sampling

Convenience Sampling

Convenience sampling is probably the most common of all sampling techniques. With convenience sampling, the samples are selected because they are accessible to the researcher. Subjects are chosen simply because they are easy to recruit. This technique is considered easiest, cheapest and least time consuming.

Consecutive Sampling

Consecutive sampling is very similar to convenience sampling except that it seeks to include ALL accessible subjects as part of the sample. This non-probability sampling technique can be considered as the best of all non-probability samples because it includes all subjects that are available that makes the sample a better representation of the entire population.

Quota Sampling

Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the researcher ensures equal or proportionate representation of subjects depending on which trait is considered as basis of the quota.

For example, if basis of the quota is college year level and the researcher needs equal representation, with a sample size of 100, he must select 25 1st year students, another 25 2nd year students, 25 3rd year and 25 4th year students. The bases of the quota are usually age, gender, education, race, religion and socioeconomic status.

Judgmental Sampling

Judgmental sampling is more commonly known as purposive sampling. In this type of sampling, subjects are chosen to be part of the sample with a specific purpose in mind. With judgmental sampling, the researcher believes that some subjects are more fit for the research compared to other individuals. This is the reason why they are purposively chosen as subjects.

Snowball Sampling

Snowball sampling is usually done when there is a very small population size. In this type of sampling, the researcher asks the initial subject to identify another potential subject who also meets the criteria of the research. The downside of using a snowball sample is that it is hardly representative of the population.

When to Use Non-Probability Sampling

This type of sampling can be used when demonstrating that a particular trait exists in the population.

It can also be used when the researcher aims to do a qualitative, pilot or exploratory study.

It can be used when randomization is impossible like when the population is almost limitless.

It can be used when the research does not aim to generate results that will be used to create generalizations pertaining to the entire population.

It is also useful when the researcher has limited budget, time and workforce.

This technique can also be used in an initial study which will be carried out again using a randomized, probability sampling.

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What is Meta-theories?

• A metatheory or meta-theory is a theory whose subject matter is some theory. All fields of research share some meta-theory, regardless whether this is explicit or correct. In a more restricted and specific sense, in mathematics and mathematical logic, metatheory means a mathematical theory about another mathematical theory. Any physical theory is always provisional, in the sense that it is only a hypothesis; you can never prove it. No matter how many times the results of experiments agree with some theory, you can never be sure that the next time the result will not contradict the theory. On the other hand, you can disprove a theory by finding even a single observation that disagrees with the predictions of the theory.      ”
• Meta-theoretical investigations are generally part of philosophy of science. Also a metatheory is an object of concern to the area in which the individual theory is conceived.
• Metatheory, which deals with methods of evaluating theories, has traditionally been the province of philosophers of science, although psychologists implicitly use metatheories whenever they evaluate theories. The original figure below is a taxonomy of metatheories. Click on any approach to knowledge below the figure to learn more about it.
• A metatheory is a set of interlocking rules, principles, or a story (narrative), that both describes and prescribes what is acceptable and unacceptable as theory - the means of conceptual exploration - in a scientific discipline. For example, the prevailing metatheory might prescribe that change of form (transformational change) is, or is not, a legitimate way of understanding developmental change. If the prevailing metatheory accepted the legitimacy of transformational change, then theories of development would include some type of stage concept, because "stage" is the theoretical concept that is used to describe transformational change.
•      A methodology is a set of interlocking rules, principles, or a story, that describes and prescribes the nature of acceptable methods -- the means of observational exploration - in a scientific discipline. For example, the prevailing methodology might prescribe that the assessment of sequences is, or is not, critical to understanding developmental change. If deemed critical to methodology, sequential assessment methods would assume a central place as a tool of empirical inquiry.
•      Metatheory and methodology are closely interrelated and intertwined. Metatheory presents a vision of the nature of the world and the objects of that world (e.g., do you accept a picture of persons as "active agents" "constructing" their known world, or as "recoding devices" that "process" information). Methodology presents a vision of the tools we can use to explore that world.

Domestic Abuse In Public

Domestic Abuse In Public! (Social Experiment)

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